Sampling Efforts

Results- Nutrients

Results - Bacteria

Sediment Generation

Sampling to Measure Effectiveness of Best Management Practices

Zooplankton

Benthos

Fish

Macrobenthic vegetation

Summary of Soils

Zoning

Table 1 Geographic and Morphometric Information

CCE - Cornell Cooperative Extension

DEC - New York State Department of Environmental Conservation

ECL - Environmental Conservation Law

FL-OWPA - Finger Lakes - Ontario Watershed Protection Alliance

NRCS - Natural Resources Conservation Service

NYSDOH - New York State Department of Health

NYSDOT - New York State Department of Transportation

ONCHD - Onondaga County Health Department

SLWAP - Skaneateles Lake Watershed Agricultural Program

SWCD - Soil and Water Conservation District

UFI - Upstate Freshwater Institute

USDA - United States Department of Agriculture

Dendritic - a common well-integrated pattern formed by a stream with tributaries branching and rebranching freely in all directions.

Dimictic - a lake characterized by two turnover periods in which the water layers stratify.

Epilimnion - the warm, upper layer of water in a lake.

Eutrophic - rich in phosphates, nitrates, and other nutrients that promote the growth of algae, which deplete the water of oxygen.

Fauna - The animals or animal life of a particular place.

Fragipan - A horizon found in glacial till in the deep subsoil that is tightly packed and slowly permeable to water.

Littoral Zone - the zone close to the water’s edge where one finds rooted aquatic plants.

Metalimnion - area of rapid temperature change between upper, warmer waters and lower cooler waters in a thermally stratified lake.

Morphometry - The measurement of the external shape or form of a lake or stream.

Oligotrophic - not providing nutrition, as a lake with scant vegetation.

Outcrop - coming out of the surface of the earth.

Palustrine - having to do with a marsh or marshy.

The initial impetus for writing this document was a requirement by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that a written lake management plan be provided by agencies in the watershed that benefit from funding under the federal Clean Lakes Program. It has also been suggested by various stakeholder groups and government agencies that a management plan will chart the course for future lake management programs and the funding of these programs in the watershed. The City of Syracuse contracted with Cornell Cooperative Extension of Onondaga County in June of 1997 to provide a lake management plan report for the EPA by December 1997. The City supports the creation of a management plan and has utilized federal funding to augment its support of watershed protection programs.

Although the timeframe for developing such a plan is limited, there has been much written in the past about this watershed. For example, numerous reports and updates on the City's progress for Filtration Avoidance provided the factual information about the Lake and its environs as well as management programs and activities. Much of the information in this report comes from the City of Syracuse’s Annual Reports as well as the Draft Environmental Impact Statement (1994) that was prepared as a part of the City’s Draft Revision to the Watershed Rules and Regulations. Also used for this report are comments and concerns raised at public meetings and strategy sessions, which have been held periodically throughout the watershed (see Appendix A). In addition, staff members from the City of Syracuse Department of Water provided their time towards the research and writing of the final document; and the Onondaga Environmental Health Council also devoted staff time towards gathering data and writing Part I - Watershed Characteristics section.

In the course of developing this document, we have identified a number of issues that are beyond the scope of the current lake management programs being funded by the City of Syracuse and the EPA. However, by laying out these concerns we are providing a framework for further discussion and providing potential actions that might be taken by the various municipalities, citizen groups, non-profit organizations, and government agencies around the watershed.

In the draft State of the Lake Report (September 1997), issues were outlined but recommendations were purposely withheld. The State of the Lake Report was sent to 130 stakeholders around the watershed in August 1997. As a result, comments received from concerned citizens, government agencies, non-profit groups, and municipalities, were incorporated into this report. Three meetings were held after the report was made public: 1) a limited group of stakeholders and government agencies met at Cornell Cooperative Extension in Syracuse on September 19, 1997; 2) a meeting of the Watershed Agricultural Program Review Committee; and 3) a group of local officials from around the watershed met at the Village office in Skaneateles on November 13^th, 1997 (see Appendix A).

Specific comments and recommendations that resulted from these meetings are incorporated into the report. Consequently, we are calling this report the Skaneateles Lake Watershed Management Plan. This plan is in no way conclusive, but does provide a number of recommendations for action that may be taken by the diverse municipalities, citizens, non-profit organizations, and government agencies that are charged with managing the resources of the lake. Although this report lists a number of actions that are being taken to protect the lake through existing agency programs, there are a number of recommendations that have no action pending. Advancement of new initiatives and programs will depend on the interest of the citizens and municipalities around the watershed to take the next step.

Skaneateles Lake, located in the Oswego River Drainage Basin, is the fourth largest of the Finger Lakes. The lake was formed in the Pleistocene Era by the advance of the continental glacier and, like other Finger Lakes, is long and very thin in shape. The lake has a mean elevation of 863. 27 feet above sea level, a length of 16 miles, an average width of three quarters of a mile, and a maximum depth of 300 feet. A large portion of the watershed is steeply sloped, and the highest point of elevation is 1,980, which occurs at the southeast end of the watershed. The watershed is comprised of portions of one village and seven towns within three counties: Onondaga, Cayuga, and Cortland.

Geographic and morphometric information on Skaneateles are listed in Table 1.

*Michael and Kraemer (1995) model indicates that the water retention time was about half of the 18 years reported by Schaffner and Oglesby (1978).

The lake basin is very steeply sloped with a small, narrow, littoral zone. This is evident in that approximately 80% of the lake's volume is found below a depth of 30 feet. Classified as oligotrophic, Skaneateles Lake's low biological productivity, at least in part, is thought to be the result of the lake's small watershed to lake surface area ratio.

The northern and southern ends of the lake are low-lying areas which represent the continuation of the lake valley to the north and south. The southern end is mostly wetlands, bordered by topography created by glacial deltas and beaches, and followed by morainic hummocky topography (see Appendix C). To the north, the lake outlet, Skaneateles Creek proceeds north out of the immediate lake watershed area. The hillsides on the northern half of the lake have generally gently sloping terrain, with the majority of slopes in the 2-8% range. In some cases the tops of hillsides at the watershed ridge are nearly level. The drainage pattern is dendritic, and runs in the valleys and low points between hilltops. The northwestern-most portion of the watershed borders a drumlin area, and includes a small portion of poorly developed, disordered drainage pattern with several wetlands.

Approximately one and a half miles south of Borodino Landing, a little more than half way down the lake, the sides of the hillsides rise steeply from the lake bed, with dominant slopes from 25-35%. Bedrock is exposed in many places on these cliffs and steep slopes, which are deeply fissured with stream gorges. These are cut into the bedrock parallel to each other and at right angles to the lake bed at regular intervals, and continue to the southern end of the lake. Stream gorges occur at more frequent intervals on the east shore than on the west shore.

The lake surface area is 13.6 square miles and the total watershed area covers 72.9 square miles. The lake volume is 1536 x 10⁶ m³ (Effler et. al, 1989). The ratio of land to lake surface area is 4.36 square miles of watershed per 1.0 square mile of lake surface area. The ratio is small in comparison to the water surface area to land ratio for other Finger Lakes. Cayuga, Otisco and Owasco Lakes are 23.38, 17.6, and 19.34 sq.mi. watershed per sq. mi. lake surface, respectively.

Major tributaries of the lake watershed include: Shotwell Brook; Harrold Brook; Grout Brook (classified AA); Bear Swamp Creek (classified AA); 6 storm outfalls in the Village of Skaneateles. Other tributary discharge points with deltas are: Five Mile (classified AA), Ten Mile, Jenny, Stag Horn, Spafford Landing (Randall Gulf), Three Mile, Gregory Landing (Glen Cove), Carpenter, and Fallbrook.

Skaneateles Lake is considered an oligotrophic body of water, thus making it ideal for a public drinking water source. During intense storm events, the numerous tributaries, gorges ("gulfs") carry temporary sediment plumes into the lake. Despite this seasonal occurrence, the lake, due to its great depth and history as an oligotrophic body, shows no signs of eutrophication. According to Steven W. Effler, Ph.D. (1992), recent studies for water quality in Skaneateles Lake show "no significant changes in the trophic state [s]" over the period of record, which for Skaneateles Lake is since the early 1900's. Raw water data are taken according to standards and frequency set by the NYS Department of Health (NYSDOH) as set forth in Chapter 1 of the State Sanitary Code, and in some cases more frequently, as required by the filtration avoidance criteria. Sampling results may be viewed in Tables 7-23 of the Skaneateles Lake and Watershed 1996 Annual Report (available through the City of Syracuse Department of Water). This, along with other sampling data, is summarized under the "Chemical and Biological Data Summary" portion of this report.

The lake's priority water body status is as follows:

Onondaga County:

Skaneateles Lake & Tributaries ID. No. 0707-0003, Priority 1P (1= highest priority, P = protect or preserve existing quality or uniqueness of water resource), Class: AA; Affected Use: Water supply; Severity: Threatened; Primary pollutant: pathogens, turbidity, nutrients.

Cortland County:

Ranked No. 6 - Skaneateles Lake Watershed - Grout Brook. PWL: Medium (stressed).

Cayuga County

Not listed.

As previously noted, the lake is classified AA and is utilized as a source of public and private water. Of the approximately 1000 lakeshore dwellings, a majority get their water directly from the lake by private intake pipes. How many of these use it for drinking water is unknown at this time. The lake is not used as a source of industrial water, a source for agricultural irrigation, or animal watering. The only known commercial use is for irrigation at the Skaneateles Country Club.

The City of Syracuse first became interested in Skaneateles Lake as a drinking water supply in the 1880's under the influence of Mayor William B. Kirk. In 1889, a bill was passed by the New York State Legislature allowing the City to utilize the lake as a potable water supply. In addition, the lake serves as a drinking water supply for the Village of Skaneateles, and various water districts in the Town of Skaneateles and the Village of Elbridge and Jordan.

Water is taken from the lake by way of two 54-inch diameter steel intake pipes. The average daily flow is approximately 48 million gallons. Intake #1 was constructed in 1893 and extends 6,419 feet into the lake from the northern shore at a depth of 40 feet. Intake #2 was constructed in 1938 and extends 4,224 feet into the lake from the northern shore at a depth of 20 feet.

Water taken from the lake is not filtered except by coarse screens. Chlorination and fluoridation are the only treatments necessary. Further filtration is not required, per the terms of a filtration waiver issued by the NYS Department of Health in June of 1993. (See Issues section for further information.) The chlorine injection points were relocated in 1992 to the interior of the intake structures to prevent zebra mussel infestation. The Water is transported via three conduits by gravity flow from the Syracuse Water Plant located in the Village of Skaneateles to the City of Syracuse, a distance of 19.5 miles.

The ability to obtain quality drinking water without filtration is attributed to the low biological productivity of the lake. Algal populations exist in low numbers throughout most of the year. No treatments of copper sulphate have been used to control algal growth since August, 1972.

Lake levels are maintained by the City of Syracuse through dam discharges made through the Skaneateles Lake Outlet into Skaneateles Creek. Based upon a 45- year average of first of the month readings, minimum elevations are normally reached during the winter (December; 860.31 ft.; Syracuse datum) with maximum elevations typically reached in June (862.84ft.- Syracuse datum.)

Three basic criteria are used to determine the rate of discharge through the lake's outlet for lake elevation management: 1) current levels as compared to the Skaneateles Lake trigger levels (refer to initial filtration waiver letter from NYSDOH, May 11, 1992); 2) current rates of precipitation; and 3) the amount of water stored in the snowpack. For the latter, cores of snowpack at eighteen locations within the watershed are analyzed weekly for water content. In order to have enough water for water supply purposes, the Water Department regulates the dam discharge in order to achieve a high water level of 863.25’ (City of Syracuse Datum) during the month of June.

The Skaneateles watershed receives an average of 41.23" of precipitation per year. Of this amount, approximately 50% (20.6") of the total precipitation produces runoff or yield to the lake. Of the total yield, the Water Department utilizes approximately 17.5 billion gallons per year for water supply to the City. The Village and Town of Skaneateles use approximately 0.30 billion gallons, and 8.10 billion gallons are discharged through the outlet of the lake to Skaneateles Creek. The latter is done in order to maintain elevations that satisfy the many uses of the lake: public and private water supply, storage for seasonal runoff, fishery spawning areas and recreation, and to comply with requirements of the DEC for maintaining Skaneateles Creek flows.

While a fairly large number of streams flow into Skaneateles Lake, the vast majority are seasonal or intermittent. The three larger tributaries, Grout Brook, Bear Swamp Creek and Shotwell Brook, are generally the only water courses that maintain flow throughout the year. In extreme drought conditions, only Grout Brook may have continuous flow. While ground water inflow to the lake may be of significance, its contribution has not been accurately quantified.

Skaneateles Lake has very low biological productivity and, in fact, is the most oligotrophic of the Finger Lakes. The lake is dimictic in years of complete ice cover and characterized by the delayed establishment of stratification in spring and early summer, delayed warming of the upper layers and onset of fall turnover, a cold hypolimnion and a thick metalimnion. In years with incomplete ice cover, winter stratification does not develop. The presence of a thicker metalimnion is due to the deep light penetration that occurs in Skaneateles, while all of the other named characteristics are due to the lake's greater depth (Effler et al. 1989.) Historically, this lake has shown that it can handle large stormwater events such as Hurricane Agnes (1972) without long-term effects on water quality.

Other characteristics of Skaneateles Lake are typical of oligotrophic water bodies, including increased dissolved oxygen concentrations with depth (e.g., orthograde oxygen profile), and high transparency levels. Perhaps most notable is the blue-green color of Skaneateles Lake, which is due to the depth of blue and green wavelengths of light penetration into the lake. This is the result of the very low concentrations of phytoplankton and humic substances which strongly absorb light in the blue wavelength range. Effler et al. (1989) found Carlson trophic state index values (based upon chlorophyll a and secchi disc readings) of between 16 and 30, which represent oligotrophy.

Dissolved oxygen changes are largely the result of oxygen saturation conditions associated with temperature. This accounts for the characteristic decrease in the well-oxygenated upper waters until around early August which are then followed by dissolved oxygen increases as water temperatures begin to cool. Likewise, the increase in dissolved oxygen with depth during the stratification period that creates the characteristically oligotrophic orthograde distribution is also due to saturation conditions associated with temperature. However, some oxygen depletion does occur in the deeper, isolated, portions of the hypolimnion during the late stratification period and is attributed to localized oxygen demand at the sediment interface (Effler et al. 1989)

The historical data base for dissolved oxygen is very limited and not readily comparable due to differences in the frequency and depths of collection. Effler et al. (1989) compared mid-August profiles obtained in 1988 by the Upstate Freshwater Institute (UFI) with those collected in August, 1910. Orthograde distributions were observed in both years along with minor decreases in concentration below 20 m. In the 30m-50m depth range, the 1988 profile readings were at a slightly less percent saturation.

Profile data collected by Mills (1975) exhibited the characteristic orthograde distribution with minimum hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen readings of 8.3 mg/l (at 6 degrees C) in 1972 and 10.4 mg/l (approximately 6 degrees C) in 1973. A near bottom reading taken in July 1973 was 11.1 mg/l, which was 89% saturation.

The difficulty in assigning significance to such a small difference and from the one profile taken in 1910 was noted. While this could indicate a subtle degradation over time, the difference could well be within the natural variation associated with meteorological variability (Auer and Effler, 1989). Ogelsby et. al (1975) indicated that variations in hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen levels in some of the larger volume Finger Lakes (including Skaneateles) appears to be as much a function of the length of the stratification period and the depth at which the thermocline is established as to levels of primary production.

The chlorophyll a concentrations reported by Effler et al. (1989) from the epilimnion during 1988 were well below the 2 mg/m³ summer average considered as a demarcation between mesotrophy and oligotrophy. The average value reported for the 1988 study period was 0.23 mg/m³. Both the average and peak values reported for 1988 were over 50% less than measured in the lake in early 1970's. (Effler et al. 1989) surmised that this decrease may be due to the overall lower level of runoff that took place during the 1980's in comparison to the early 1970s.

Mills (1975) found that chlorophyte and diatom species were present in about equal numbers and accounted for nearly 70% of the forms observed. The green algae (chlorophytes) were generally common during the summer. The City of Syracuse data exhibits a similar pattern. In 1996, for example, diatoms (Chrysophyta) and blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) were prevalent with Cyclotella, the most abundant diatom genus and Microcystis the dominant blue-green. With the onset of warmer temperatures, green algae became more common and represented by a rather wide diversity of genera.

Schaffner and Oglesby (1978) reported phytoplankton biomass and temporal cell number counts for several Finger Lakes, including Skaneateles Lake. While there is an extensive record of phytoplankton cell number counts, historical comparisons must be made cautiously due to spatial and temporal differences in sample collection and analyses. Due to its oligotrophic nature, Skaneateles Lake was found to contain the fewest species, lowest cell numbers and biomass, and smallest range of cell numbers and biomass of the Finger Lakes studied. Schaffner and Oglesby (1978) reported on cell counts taken from Skaneateles Lake during a synoptic survey completed in 1973. A composite of three upper water layer samples (0, 5, 10 m depths) was made and the cell concentration for June was reported as 0.8 x10³ cells/ml. This concentration was the lowest reported for the eight Finger Lakes sampled. The late August number was nearly 2 x 10³ cells /ml.

More recent efforts by researchers at calculating phytoplankton biomass for Skaneateles Lake have not been done. However, the City of Syracuse has collected and analyzed phytoplankton samples from Skaneateles Lake for roughly two decades. The City of Syracuse analyses show no discernible changes in dominant genera with occasional differences in cell counts on an annual basis due to climatic variability (personal communication, Robbino, 1997).

Oglesby et. al (1975) described the seasonal patterns in concentrations of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) nitrate-N (NO3) and soluble reactive silicate-Si (SRSi) in Skaneateles Lake for 1972-73. A decline in both SRP and NO3 was reported in the epilimnion during late summer. The SRP levels were usually less than 3 mg/m³ with the highest readings associated with the aftermath of tropical storm Agnes . For August, 1973, a composite phosphorus reading for Skaneateles Lake was 5.4 mg/m³ with an average concentration for the entire period of 6.7 mg/m³. Oglesby and Schaffner (1978) estimated the specific phosphorus loading to Skaneateles Lake as 0.23 gm of total phosphorus/m2 /yr. This value was the lowest of the eight Finger Lakes for which loadings estimates were made by the authors. There are no known comparative data for SRP or total phosphorus collected since the early 1970s and neither have more recent estimates of phosphorus loadings been developed. Since that time (1973), the phosphorus detergent ban went into effect and a decrease in lake phosphorus levels, which has been the rule for other Finger Lakes, would be expected.

Composite nitrate-N readings taken in 1973 ranged from a high of 0.708 mg/l – (note: 1,000 mg/m³ = 1 mg/l) in spring (April),to a minimum of 0.175 mg/l in summer (July) and a subsequent increase to 0.511 mg/l by late summer (late August). Schaffner and Oglesby (1978) suggested that the higher concentrations of nitrate-N found in the eastern Finger Lakes may be due to geochemical sources such as from weathered shale formations as no correlation to agricultural activity was apparent.

( from City of Syracuse Skaneateles Lake and Watershed Annual Reports

1987,1993, 1995, 1996)

Comparative Secchi disc transparency measurements from Skaneateles Lake are shown in Table 3. Transparencies during the past decade are greater than those from 1972 and 1973, but similar to those of 1971. High runoff and resulting particulate matter during the 1972-73 time period is likely responsible for these decreases. The event that most exemplifies this situation is tropical storm Agnes which occurred in June of 1972. For example, Mills (1975) recorded a Secchi disc transparency of less than 1 m following Agnes. The influence of runoff can be seen in at least a causal inverse correlation with lower mean transparencies present during years with greater precipitation. Generally speaking, maximums are observed in the mid to late summer period with the minimum values recorded in late spring to early summer when the onset of turnover of the lake is taking place.

Effler et al. (1989) found the average value for the light attenuation coefficient (Kd )to be .17 /m with the range of values between .15/m in late summer to .22 /m in late spring. The photic zone (depth at 1% light level ) averaged 27 m. which allows plant growth to occur at great depths and solar heating below the epilimnion (Effler et al. 1989).

(modified from Schaffner and Oglesby, 1978; and Effler et al., 1989 )

a Birge and Juday (1914); one day in August

b Oglesby (1974); mean summer

c Mills (1975); late May to early October

d Mills (1975); late May to late August

e Effler et. al (1987) early May to mid July

f Cole (1987); April through October

g Effler et. al (1987); May through October

h Robbino (1991); June through October

i Robbino (1994); June through October

j Robbino (1997); June through October

Because the City of Syracuse is in the midst of Filtration Avoidance (see issues section) any events that lead to elevated turbidity levels at the intake pipes is a concern. Consequently, the City of Syracuse funded a hydrodynamic investigation undertaken jointly by Stearns and Wheler Engineers, Syracuse University, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, and the Upstate Freshwater Institute (1996) to determine the sources and causes of turbidity in the northern basin of the lake; primarily in the vicinity of the City of Syracuse water intakes. The study concluded that: 1) Turbidity at the intakes is caused by the re-suspension of bottom sediments in proximate nearshore areas. Sediments are transported to the intakes by wind driven currents; 2) A primary source of turbidity at the intakes is the South Sandy Beach area, located south and west of the two intakes; 3) Turbidity events within the lake are a function of wind driven occurrences and lake levels; 4) lower lake levels increase the probability of an event occurring; 5) Soil particles collected from the intakes during events "match" those from the proximate near-shore areas and do not "match" particles collected from the tributaries; 6) While the bottom sediments may have originated in the tributaries, they have been in the lake long enough to have become chemically modified.

Regarding more "open" water conditions, Effler et al. (1989) found that turbidity levels, except in close proximity to bottom sediments, in the upper 15 m of the lake were less than 1.0 NTU during the entire study period. Little vertical variation was seen. There was also little temporal variation with the exception of increases for a short time in early July and September which were attributed to the calcium carbonate precipitation phenomena known as "whiting" .

Pesticides and their metabolites have been measured in waters from both Skaneateles and from Grout Brook, a major tributary to Skaneateles Lake. Preliminary results of water quality sampling at the Grout Brook gage for trace-level pesticides indicate a presence of pesticides and DAR, which are consistent with amounts of trace-level pesticides and DAR found in Skaneateles Lake during a USGS study in 1993-94 (personal communication, Ed Bugliosi, USGS). DAR is an indication that pesticides have interacted with soil bacteria, and hence, imply that the pesticides may have moved through the ground-water-flow system to the lake.

Statewide, there is a monitoring program that monitors pesticides in drinking water. The Statewide Pesticide Monitoring Program is a joint program between the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The program’s objective is to determine the presence of pesticides in the waters of the state. There are 60 sites statewide; Skaneateles is one of the sites. Samples are taken at 6 fixed sites once a month from April through September and after three storm events. The program started in May 1997. Results from this study have not been officially released to the public, but will likely be published as USGS fact sheets sometime in the near future.

Every year the City of Syracuse monitors for several synthetic organic compounds on a quarterly basis. In one quarterly analysis in 1993 the atrazine analysis was 0.0002 mg/l, above detection limits but well below the EPA’s maximum contaminant level for health standards (.003 mg/l).

Data collection from Skaneateles Lake tributaries has generally been sporadic or project specific. Due at least in part to the intermittent nature of most of the basin's tributaries, sampling has also focused on selected water courses, and there have been few attempts at quantifying loadings. Furthermore, much of the early historical data was collected during warm weather and low flow period. The City of Syracuse and Onondaga County Health Department have been sampling in the past five years and therefore have a better understanding as to the impact of storm and runoff events upon tributary water quality.

The Onondaga County Health Department (OCHD) conducted several years of cursory sampling from most of the tributaries during much of the 1970s. As noted previously, the high flows and corresponding levels of nutrient and sediment inputs resulting from tropical storm Agnes in 1972 had a temporary, but profound affect upon Skaneateles Lake and its tributaries. During the mid 1990s, OCHD, primarily with funding under the Finger Lakes - Lake Ontario Watershed Protection Alliance (FLOWPA) program, has completed tributary sampling at selected northern basin tributaries under base flow and storm event conditions.

Recent efforts have focused on the northern basin tributaries, including storm outfalls, with the primary purpose being to determine the role tributary inputs play upon bacteria and turbidity levels in water intake samples. The City of Syracuse, as part of its filtration avoidance efforts, began a tributary surveillance program for Giardia in 1985 and for Cryptosporidium in 1988.

In 1994, the USGS completed a cursory sampling program including base flow and storm event sampling at several tributaries including Shotwell Brook, Grout Brook, Bear Swamp Creek, Hardscrabble Brook, Five Mile Brook and Fall Brook. Samples were analyzed for selected nutrients, trace metals, and a number of physical and biological parameters. Data from the stormwater sampling indicate that there may be some dilution of constituents, however, only with continuous monitoring would it be possible to determine if there is more than just a "first flush". Data from one of the small tributaries (Hardscrabble Brook) indicate there are some changes occurring in dissolved oxygen, phosphorous, and nitrogen levels as a result of runoff, but these changes probably do not have a big impact on the water quality of the lake. The landuse in this subwatershed is predominantly agricultural, hence continued monitoring might provide useful information on the impact of agricultural practices in the watershed (personal communication, Bugliosi, USGS).

In 1996, the Cortland County Soil and Water Conservation District (CCSWCD) initiated a monitoring program on Grout Brook which include flow measurements and event sampling. Storm-event phosphorus sampling has been done at the CCSWCD Grout Brook station. Ten events were sampled during 1996 between July and November. Detectable values ranged between 0.100 mg/l and 0.517mg/l (Cortland County SWCD, 1997.)

Finally, the City of Syracuse Department of Water conducted a tributary and stormwater outfall study from 1992-1994. The parameters analyzed for were: total suspended solids (TSS), total phosphorous (T-P), total nitrates (N-nitrate), total coliform, fecal coliform, turbidity and temperature. Sampling was conducted twice during each quarter. One set of samples was collected during baseflow conditions and the second was taken during a runoff event. During baseflow the outfalls do not flow and are not sampled. Four out of seven outfalls were sampled.

The results of all of the above mentioned studies are summarized below.

Runoff events are largely responsible for nutrient and sediment loadings generated by many of the watershed tributaries. As shown in Table 5 - two events, June 14, 1994 (5.7 mg/l) and July 7, 1994 (17 mg/l) reflect the impact that major precipitation events have upon nutrient loadings to Skaneateles Lake. However, excluding these major events, the nitrate concentrations reported from the 1970s are remarkably similar to those from the mid-1990s. Once again, this indicates that there has not been a degradation of water quality over time, regardless of the impacts on nutrient levels due to major storm events at the tributary sampling sites. (The impact of storm related events is also evident from the Shotwell Creek and Dowling Creek data for total phosphorus.)

A summary of the nitrate data base for Grout Brook and Shotwell Brook, respectively are provided in tables 3 and 4. Results for total phosphorus from selected northern basin tributaries taken between 1992 and 1994 are shown in table 5. For total - P, concentrations for unpolluted freshwater range between 0.01-0.05 mg/l. In Shotwell Brook, only storm event samples show total-P levels exceeding this range. For Dowling Brook, levels exceeded this range a number of times at baseflow and storm event conditions. The nitrate data, for which there is a more extensive comparable data base, shows no discernible change in concentrations over time. It is however evident that major storm events can have an impact on variations in these levels. For example, for Shotwell Brook in 1994 (Table 5 nitrate data) and for both Shotwell and Dowling brooks for total phosphorus (Table-6 phosphorus).

Total coliform bacteria measurements at Grout Brook were completed during 1996 sampling by the CCSWCD. Baseline values taken between June 28th and August 19th ranged from 26 to 310 cfu/100ml. Event sampling consisted of 10 events recorded between July 15th and November 26th. As expected, the event-sampling produced much higher numbers with a range between 200 and 193,000 cfu/100ml . The 193,000 number was recorded during a very significant precipitation event that took place on November 8th.

The City of Syracuse Department of Water found bacterial concentrations to vary considerably at different sampling sites. Despite the occasional high readings from the tributaries and outfalls, the raw water samples taken near the intakes were extremely low. This may indicate that localized high levels of bacteria found in samples near the mouths of the tributaries and outfall sampling sites, dissipate by the time the tributary flow gets to the open waters of the lake.

OCHD= Onondaga County Health Department

CCSWCD= Cortland County Soil and Water Conservation District

Notes: * denotes storm or runoff event

Sediment Generation

Figures from the 1974 Erosion Sediment Inventory (ESI) conducted by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) estimated that the average erosion rate on cropland in need of conservation treatment in the Skaneateles Watershed to be 7.1 tons/acre/year. Cropland adequately treated in the Skaneateles Lake Watershed was found to erode at an average rate of 1.4 tons/acre/year. The latest estimate of active cropland in the watershed is approximately 12,000 acres. The Skaneateles Lake Watershed Agricultural Program, based on the results of Tier II farm evaluations, estimates at least one half of the cropland to be adequately treated. Calculated on these estimates, 42,000 tons of sediment is generated by cropland in need of treatment, while 8,400 tons is generated by adequately treated cropland for a total of 50,400 tons of sediment generated from cropland.

In addition to the tributary sampling mentioned above, there is an effort underway by the Onondaga County Soil and Water Conservation District (OCSWCD) to evaluate Best Management Practices (BMPs) being implemented in the watershed. The sample sites chosen were two upland dairy farms on the Grout Brook subwatershed. The reasoning for this was to establish baseline data prior to the actual implementation of BMPs on the farms. Because the SLWAP program is implementing BMPs in the south later than in the north of the watershed, the assumption was that these farms would provide valuable baseline data that could be used to show the before and after effects of implementing BMPs. There was to be one year of background data, then one year for BMP implementation. Next, there would be one year of post-BMP data collection.

The key parameters to be examined were phosphorous and nitrogen, and coliform, and general physical properties of the water (temperature, conductivity, flow amounts, and timing versus precipitation). USGS would determine the hydrogeological conditions and supply flow data to match-up with the chemical concentration data determined by NYSDOH. These calculations would provide the load concentrations coming from the farms.

Unfortunately, the two farms chosen for this project have gone out of business. Consequently, this study will examine the before and after effect of removal of dairy herds.

Chamberlain (1975) reported mean values for zooplankton abundance and found that Diaptomus (copepod), Conocchilus (rotifer) and cladoceran, Daphnia dominant during the sampling years, 1972 and 1973. The DEC Region 7 Fisheries Office in Cortland conducts annual sampling for zooplankton. They have found that the daphnia have large average size when compared to samples in other Finger Lakes. This probably indicates that there is a well-balanced fish community and no overabundance of planktivores such as alewives (, Jeff Robins, NYSDEC, personal comm., 1997).

Few investigations have focused on the benthos of Skaneateles Lake with no known published investigations since the 1970s. Schaffner and Oglesby (1978) cited work by Harman and Berg (1970) who reported 13 species of mollusks from Skaneateles Lake; excluding the Sphaeriidae. A general description of the bottom fauna of the Finger Lakes of the Oswego River Basin, including Skaneateles Lake, was provided by Eaton (1928).

In 1995, adult zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) were reported from locations at the southern end of the lake, Jenny Point ( just south of Ten Mile Point), and by the NYSDEC Boat Launch on Route 41A. The Skaneateles Marina in Mandana reported finding zebra mussels attached to the hulls of a number of boats moored at the facility. By the summer of 1996, zebra mussels had become widespread throughout Skaneateles Lake wherever suitable, hard substrate is present.

To date, there are no known reports of problems associated with zebra mussels, but a number of inquiries and concerns have been raised regarding methods to protect private water supply systems and whether or not any ecological impacts can be expected. The longer term population changes and impacts will be of ecological interest since the physical conditions and food supply in Skaneateles Lake are not considered optimal for zebra mussel infestation. (For more information regarding the impacts of zebra mussels and other exotic species refer to the issues section on exotics).

The most recent study of the fishery was made by the NYSDEC in 1981 with twenty-seven species of fish identified. Skaneateles Lake supports both a cold water fishery in the deep, central basin, and warm water fisheries in the shallower areas at both ends of the Lake. No species found in the Lake are listed as endangered, threatened, or of special concern by the DEC.

The food supply is limited in that there are no major forage species (e.g. alewife or rainbow smelt) to support an extensive fishery. Microzooplankton, macrozooplankton, insects, and juvenile fish are the primary food sources for fish communities.

Common lakes species include: whitefish, cisco, brown trout, rainbow trout, lake trout, landlocked salmon, smallmouth bass, rock bass, bluegill, pumpkinseed, chain pickerel, and yellow perch. Skaneateles is a near perfect habitat for yellow perch, which prefer cool, deep, and shady locations. This species is a favorite with anglers because of their great taste and market value. Yellow perch are vulnerable to over-fishing, so the DEC recently put restrictions on the their harvest.

It is the general feeling of the DEC that Skaneateles has not lost species of fish to extinction. It has, however, picked up several introduced species historically not present. These species were probably introduced by anglers who wanted a supply of their personal favorites. Among those seen in the last few years: large carp, walleye, and rudd (European minnow). Rudd have been seen on a few occasions in the South end of the lake. This species has a characteristic bright orange color and makes good bait (Robins, 1997). Other non-native species such as brown trout and rainbow trout exist in the lake and are a favorite for sport anglers.

The DEC stocks the lake with Rainbow Trout and Landlocked Salmon. Only the stocked Rainbow Trout reproduce. Land locked Salmon may spawn, but fry are in competition with the many wild trout fry, and do not seem to survive. Rainbow trout are stocked annually by the DEC from their hatcheries: 20,000 in the lake and several thousand 2" fingerlings below the dam at New Hope Mill.

Abundant wild lake trout populations are found in only two of the Finger Lakes: Skaneateles and Keuka Lakes. Their requirements are the cleanest bottom, coldest water, and highest levels of oxygen. Their abundance in Skaneateles indicates the lake's fine water quality.

Grout Brook is the spawning area for most wild rainbow trout in Skaneateles Lake and is the ideal habitat because it runs cold and fast over clean rocks all year long . Anglers say that there is a "rainbow for every rock." Fingerlings commonly spend 2 years in the brook (a few spend 3), then move toward the lake. It has been estimated that several thousand 7" wild rainbows move out of Grout Brook each year. They spend another 2-3 years in the lake, reaching about 18-21" in size, then return to the brook to spawn. Unlike lake trout, which can spawn in the lake, rainbows must spawn in a stream. A DEC fish jump pool is located in Grout Brook on private property near W. Scott Rd. It is in need of costly repairs, but is still functioning at this time.

An important program run by the DEC is the Angler Diary Program. Approximately fifty people on Skaneateles Lake participate by keeping accurate records of their catch, including species, date, time, location, fish length, weight, fin clips, and whether kept or released. This data base negates the need for netting in the lake to determine species composition and numbers, and allows the DEC to calculate stocking requirements for the coming year. Records go back to 1966, and more recent records include warmwater anglers and stream anglers, as well as those from the lake. Anyone can join the program by calling the DEC in Cortland.

There is no special fish consumption advisory for Skaneateles Lake, which further supports the characterization of the Lake’s good water quality. The NYS default consumption advisory applies to the Lake, which is "no more than 1 meal (1/2 lb.) per week of fish from any water in NYS."

The recent arrival of the zebra mussel is not expected to have a great impact on the fishery food chain in Skaneateles Lake. There is not enough phytoplankton to support a zebra mussel population boom. Even in Oneida Lake, where the bottom is covered with thick zebra mussels, little impact on the fishery has been noted. Yellow perch are actually feeding on the mussels, and the mussel beds have provided spawning areas for several fish. As mentioned, the effect of zebra mussels may be more pronounced on the population of larger native fresh-water mussels, which may be suffocated by the zebra mussels.

Baston and Ross (1975) reported that an ideal composition and density of macrobenthic plants was present in Skaneateles Lake. The dominant forms were Chara sp. and Elodea canadensis. Associated species included Valisneria americana, Heteranthera dubia and Ceratophyllum demersum. The authors reported that the shale bottom along the northern lake perimeter prevented plant growth from occurring close to shore. Lakeward and occurring intermittently along the lake's eastern shore were: Potamogeton richardsonii, V. americana, Najalis flexilis and P. canadensis. A heavy concentration of E. canadensis was found along the western shore in water 3-6 m deep where a shallow layer of sandy silt was present. In the lake's southeast corner, Elodea canadensis was the dominant offshore species. In the shallower water, where bottom substrate contained an approximate 10 cm layer of muck, Chara was dominant with V. americana common. Chara was also dominant in the northwest corner in a sandy clay bottom.

Updates of the macrobenthic vegetation distribution were done by Miller (1977, 1984) who reported findings very similar to those of Baston and Ross (1975) . Miller (1984) found little difference in distribution or changes in species importance between his 1977 and 1984 surveys of the Cayuga County portion of the lake. In both years, Chara was dominant with both its abundance and distribution unchanged. Coverage of the lake bottom with Chara was from 80% to 100% at the southern end of the lake.

Other species present in water less than 6 feet depth at the lake's southern end included : Elodea canadensis, Valisneria americana, Najas flexilis, Potamogeton filiformis, and Ranunculus aquatilis. These species were found in dense, but very small, localized areas of a half to a couple of square meters. In the 6ft to 14ft depth range, Chara remained dominant covering 40% to 80% of the bottom with the same associate species as found in 1977: Elodea canadensis and Myriophyllum exalbescens. Some dense stands of Potamogeton richardsonii were present in the 10ft-16ft depth zone, while Potamogeton amplifolius was found in significant numbers for the first time. Along the western shore up to the Onondaga County border, there was no vegetation at depths in excess of 27 feet and vegetation was generally sparse due to the steep, narrow, littoral zone and rocky bottom. The predominant species were Chara and N. flexilis.

There have been only a few inquires or concerns expressed regarding any overabundance or nuisance levels of aquatic macrophyte vegetation. Miller (1984) also indicated that there was no noticeable increase in sedimentation in the lake and that without it, little change in littoral zone species composition and aerial coverage would occur. The author noted that Ranunculus aquatilis might be an indicator species of any future changes in Skaneateles Lake since its density, frequency of occurrence, or dominance had not changed between 1977 and 1984. However, R. Aquatilis is a native species and is actually an indicator of good water quality because it grows in clear water. It has not proved to be a nuisance species (personal communication, Dr. Johnson, 1997). Eurasion watermilfoil is also present in Skaneateles Lake although there is no information on when it entered. If the overall water quality remains stable (low nutrients, clear water) in Skaneateles Lake this species should not become a nuisance (personal communication, Dr. Johnson, 1997). It tends to dominate in areas where there is less than three meters in depth and fine to medium textured sediment to root.

Little is known about the importance of ground water in the overall budget for Skaneateles Lake. There are however indications that ground water inflow may be a bigger component of the overall hydrologic budget than previously believed. It has been generally accepted that the hydrologic retention time of the lake is approximately 18-20 years. However, a 1995 study of tritium concentrations found that the water-residence-time in the lake was 8.5 years (Michael et. al 1995). Michael et al. (1995) concluded that the shorter residence time may be due to the influx of ground water . How much ground water actually contributes to the overall budget is unclear at this time. Some scientists at the USGS believe that it could be up to a third of the total budget (personal communication, Bugliosi, 1997). While others feel that due to the small drainage basin, it does not account for a large proportion of the overall budget (Michael et al. 1995). Michael et al. (1995) noted that they could not account for the discrepancy in water retention time as reported by Schaffner and Oglesby (1978).

Indicators that ground water may be a bigger component include:

The geomorphic and sedimentological models of other valleys in the Finger Lakes show that glacial deposits can interfinger with sediments in the lakes and have the potential to recharge ground water to the lake.

Current watershed modeling in parts of the Nine Mile Creek watershed indicates that a substantial ground water component in that watershed is due to the presence of dissolved limestone that transmits ground water as baseflow. Similar geologic conditions may exist in relation to Skaneateles Lake.

Flow data from the Grout Brook gaging station indicate that ground water is a substantial component of streamflow - perhaps up to 30% of total flow.

(Personal Communication, Ed Bugliosi).

The depth to water table can vary a number of feet from Spring to Summer months throughout much of the watershed. Seasonal high water tables range from as little as 6-12" to 15-24" and deeper. Some soils have perched water on slowly permeable subsoil and fragipans (City of Syracuse Dept. of Water, 1996).

For more discussion and recommendations on ground water, please refer to the Issues Section.

Both the elevations and degrees of slope in the watershed increases from north to south with the highest elevation found in the southeastern portion of the watershed. Slopes are generally between 2-25 %, but can exceed 55% in the southern part of the watershed. In general, the soils of the watershed can be characterized as gravely to medium-textured silt loams that were formed in glacial till. They are poorly to moderately well-drained and very slowly to slowly permeable. Seasonal ground water depth is generally less than 3 feet.

Soil data were obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) soil surveys for the Counties of Onondaga, Cayuga and Cortland and summarized from the City of Syracuse Department of Water 1996 Annual Report for the Skaneateles Lake Watershed.

The major soil associations found primarily in Onondaga County account for approximately 50% of watershed. They are (as percent of county): Honeoye-Lima Association (39%), Lansing-Conesus (17%), Honeoye-Lansing Association (9%), and Aurora-Angola-Darien Association (14%). The Lansing-Conesus Association is also found in Cayuga County and comprises approximately 22% of the county land area.

These associations are generally characterized as deep, medium textured silt loams and gravelly silt loams. Slopes range from 2-8%, with the exception of the Honeoye-Lansing Association that has slopes of 15-25%. They are moderately well to well drained. Permeability is slow to moderate, and seasonal ground water is generally 15" to <36".

The Langford-Erie Association comprises the southern portion of Cayuga County (15% of watershed). It is considered a deep, medium textured silt loam with slopes from 2% to 25%. The soils are poorly to well drained, and slowly to moderately permeable. A medium textured fragipan can be observed in some areas. Seasonal ground water and bedrock are shallow at 6" to 20", and 20" to 40", for the Langford and Eries series, respectively.

There are three Associations found primarily within Cortland County: Valois-Langford-Lansing, Volusia-Mardin-Lordstown, and Lordstown-Volusia-Mardin. This is equivalent to about 13% of the watershed. The soils are medium textured silt loams and gravelly silt loams. Slopes can be extreme and can exceed 55%. They are poor to well drained, and very slow to moderately permeable. Seasonal ground water ranges from 18" to 60".

The general character of these associations implies that septic system use is severely limited due to high seasonal ground water and degree of slope. Erosion risk from agricultural cropping practices ranges from moderate in the Mardin soils to severe in the steeply sloped, high runoff, and moderate to slowly permeable Lordstown and Volusia soils.

Overall, the soils of the watershed are rated as slow to very slowly permeable. This poses severe limitations on septic system use. Moreover, with the exception of the Volusia and Lansing series, depth to seasonal ground water is at a maximum of three feet. Since the depth of a typical leach line trench is 24", and a 24" separation is required from the bottom of a trench to ground water or bedrock, this increases the limitations for septic system use.

Finally, most soils pose a severe risk of erosion if left bare, with an increasing degree of slope compounding the risk. This risk is greatest during the season of maximum runoff (February to May) when agricultural lands are still bare from the previous growing season.

Based upon a 45-year record, the Skaneateles Lake watershed receives an average of 41.23 inches of precipitation annually. Monthly precipitation is generally equally distributed throughout the calendar year with the range of monthly mean precipitation values ranging from 2.52 inches in January to 3.88 inches in June. Average annual snowfall for the past 16 years is 79.90 inches.

One of the larger impacts climatic factors have on water quality is their influence on turbidity at the water intakes. It has been observed that southerly winds at periods of low water level tend to result in turbidity at the intakes. The preliminary results of a recent study (Stearns & Wheler, 1996) indicate that turbidity events at the intakes result from sediment movement from the lake bottom, primarily from two areas: the shallow bay near Mile Point (Sandy Beach) and at the extreme north end of the lake, on either side of the jetty.

Prevailing winds follow a southwest to northwest pattern, southwest May-October, and northwest October-May. The Skaneateles watershed is upwind from the major sources of local air pollution, which primarily come from Onondaga County.

Forest composition in the Skaneateles Lake watershed is primarily of two types: Oak-northern hardwoods hugging the cliffs on the southern half of the lake, and northern hardwoods for most of the remainder of the watershed. A small area of birch-aspen may be included in the northeast corner of the watershed (Hardy, et. al 1980). Northern Hardwood: Predominant species are american beech, yellow birch, and sugar maple. Lesser species include red maple, white pine, white ash, basswood, paper birch, black cherry, and hemlock.

Oak-Northern Hardwood: The predominant species are one to several species of oak: red, white, black, chestnut, scarlet and scrub in almost pure stands adjoining Northern Hardwood or in mixtures with Northern Hardwood species. These are generally found in steep, narrow valleys, and high elevations. Other predominant species are gray birch, aspen, pin cherry, and northern white cedar (on limestone outcroppings).

Reforestation areas within the watershed are primarily plantations of red pine, norway spruce, and some larch. The northern two-thirds of the watershed has good soils, with no limitations for forest growth. The southeastern corner has fair, mixed soils with limitations of slope and sandiness. The southwestern corner has fair soils with no limitations for forest growth.

The Soil Survey of Onondaga County (1973) lists smaller woody species which function as wildlife habitat as dogwood, viburnum, grape, and briars. Perennial grasses and weeds include bluestem, quackgrass, panicgrass, goldenrod, wild carrot, nightshade, and dandelion. Wetland plants include smartweed, wild millet, bulrush, sedges, barnyardgrass, duckmillet, arrrow-arum, pickeralweed, wetland grasses, wildrice, and cattails.

Two of the most common and conspicuous mammals in the Skaneateles Lake watershed are white tailed deer and beaver. Beaver have a large impact on the water environment. They are located in upper Bear Swamp Creek, Shotwell Brook, and Grout Brook. They can also be seen swimming in the lake, though they are just passing through, and do not colonize there. Beaver dams are left intact by the DEC when they are near the source of Grout Brook. However, when they move downstream of Hewitt Rd., the DEC notches the dam temporarily in the spring so spawning fish may return upstream. The beaver are not harmed, and they repair the dam themselves.

Sightings of bobcat have been reported in Bear Swamp, though unconfirmed. Muskrat and mink are found in the lake-head wetland at the mouth of Grout Brook, which is the only wetland in direct contact with the lake surface. The DEC has selected Skaneateles as a site for otter reintroduction in 1998. The animals will probably be introduced directly to the lake to protect them from being trapped by beaver trappers in the uplands.

There are not many over-wintering water-fowl on Skaneateles Lake. Wood duck, redhead duck, mallards, and some geese may be seen. Most waterfowl are concentrated in the south end of the lake.

Wild turkey have made a splendid comeback in New York State. Large flocks have been seen by residents in recent years in the farm fields of the Skaneateles Lake watershed. Pheasant are not common, except for a few that have been stocked, as the winters are too harsh and few survive.

Of interest when considering water quality may be beaver and muskrat, because these species are more apt to carry cryptosporidium. However, every reservoir in the state has always had some measurable number of muskrat, without appreciable degradation of the drinking water supplies. It is the opinion of the DEC that the presence of these mammals in the watershed is not, in and of itself, a danger to potable water quality. The average active beaver colonies per square mile for Wildlife Management Unit #25 is .33/sq. mi. There are no accurate data for the exact number of colonies in the watershed.

There are four deer wintering areas in the watershed. On the east side of the lake, southern end, is the Spafford area (ON-2) and the Glen Haven area (CO-4). On the west side is the Bear Swamp area (CA-1) in Sempronius and the Apple Tree Point area (CA-7) in Niles. Codes are DEC reference numbers. Though the impact of large numbers of deer on water quality is not known, of some concern is the impact when deer die in the lake or near water courses. City of Syracuse Watershed Inspectors remove the reported carcasses of dead animals from the watershed year-round.

A water body must be less than 6' deep and be vegetated to be considered a wetland. The Skaneateles Lake watershed has approximately a dozen wetlands ranging from 12.4 to 40 acres in size. The majority of these are upland wet deciduous, palustrine wetlands located in the northern and southern uplands of the watershed, with a noticeable lack of larger wetlands in the middle section. There are two other distinct types of wetlands. Bear Swamp, which is long and narrow, follows the hanging valley of Bear Swamp Creek for over three miles. As noted above, several areas within it are listed as significant habitats. A third type is associated with the inlet at the southern end of the lake, a persistent emergent wetland on both sides of the Grout Brook inlet.

Although wetlands of 12.4 acres or more are regulated by the NYSDEC, numerous small palustrine wetlands of 200-300', many forested, dot the flatter tops of the ridges surrounding the watershed. These are too small to appear on DEC maps, but are shown on National Wetlands Inventory Maps which are produced by the US Department of the Interior. These smaller wetlands are regulated by the Army Corps of Engineers. All the wetland types serve a filtering function, removing or temporarily immobilizing excess fertilizer, chemicals, and sediment from storm water. Because there are fewer large wetlands in the area, the importance of the numerous small wetland depressions becomes greater, and these should be protected from loss through education and/or incentives. (See Appendix D)

Two federal programs for wetland conservation and restoration are the United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Wetland Reserve Program and the US Fish and Wildlife Partners for Wildlife Program. The former is available to farmers and the latter program for all watershed residents.

The population statistics below were supplied by the Onondaga County Planning Agency in June of 1997. Broken down into townships, the population of the watershed is estimated in table 7 (the Town of Skaneateles includes the population of the Village residents living within the watershed boundaries):

Onondaga County contains the majority of the watershed population, with the highest concentration centered in the Village of Skaneateles, located at the northern shore of the lake. The south-western portion of the watershed has sparse residential development, mostly seasonal, concentrated on the shorelines. Much of that development is on the steeply sloped shorelines located in the southern part of Niles and Sempronius. Steep slopes, poor soil conditions and/or shallow water tables are limiting factors on development, especially in the Town of Sempronius. The Cortland County watershed area is sparsely populated due to the poor soil percolation conditions and high flood plain. Development of the area has not increased during the past few years.

The Town of Skaneateles shows a decline in the number of young people (30% in the "under 19 " group) from 1970 to 1990. In that same period, the "55 and older" group increased by 29%. According to the Town Comprehensive Plan, similar characteristics apply to the Village, with a decrease in the younger population by 38%, an increase of the older age group by 12%.

In the over 65 age group, there has been an increase of 26% in the Town of Skaneateles, and an increase of 30% in the Village of Skaneateles over the 20-year period. This change is attributed to the Senior Citizen housing that has been built in the Village of Skaneateles.

The population in Skaneateles has been declining, while the number of households has been increasing. Census figures for the past 40 years show a decrease in the number of persons per household in the Village of Skaneateles from 3.1 to 2.4 persons. In the Town of Skaneateles the decrease per household is from 3.4 to 2.8 persons. A large number of dwelling units have been built, despite a declining population (City of Syracuse, Dept. of Water EIS, 1994).

The Town of Skaneateles Comprehensive Plan estimates that the number of people living in Skaneateles will continue to decline or will level off at approximately 7,500. The Plan estimates that about 190 acres of land would be converted to housing in the next two decades. It does not estimate how much of that amount might be within the watershed boundary.

The watershed drainage area (land only) totals 59.3 square miles. The watershed drainage area (land only) totals 59.3 square miles. Land ownership is estimated as:

54% private/residential (developed or vacant); 37% agricultural; 8% public; and

1% commercial. Land use in the watershed is estimated as: 48% agricultural;

40.2% forest; 5.4% private/residential; and the rest vacant or commercial. (See appendix E for Land Cover Map) Onondaga County accounts for 51% of the land area. The highest concentration of population and thirty-two (32) of the 60 farms in the watershed are in Onondaga County.

The south-western portion, located in Cayuga County, represents 34% (approx. 12,903 acres) of the watershed land area. Agricultural lands (22 farms) account for 29% of the county land area. Residential development, mostly seasonal, is concentrated on the shorelines. Much of that development is on the steeply sloped shorelines located in the southern part of Niles and Sempronius. Steep slopes, poor soil conditions and/or shallow water tables are limiting factors on development, especially in the Town of Sempronius.

Cortland County accounts for 15% (approx. 5,693 acres) of the watershed land area at the extreme south and south-eastern end of Skaneateles Lake. This area is sparsely populated due to the poor soil percolation conditions and high flood plain. Development of the area has not increased during the past year. Six (6) farms are located in this county, accounting for 1,506 acres or 26% of the land area.

Government lands held in the watershed include large tracts of reforestation area in the southern part of the watershed and one tract at the southern end of the lake at Grout Brook. The City of Syracuse owns 122 acres off Glenhaven Road in the southwest portion of the watershed. Lands held as nature preserves or by land trusts include 150

acres on Tenmile Point called "High Hickory" located on Richard Rd., owned by "Save the County," and 135 acres on Vincent Hill Road in the Town of Scott owned by the Finger Lakes Land Trust.

In other management plans of the Finger Lakes region, it has been found that shoreline land values contribute a substantial portion of Town tax revenues. For example, on Keuka Lake, a study of land valuation found that shoreline property values contributed an estimated 55-70% of the tax contribution to the towns in the watershed. In the Skaneateles watershed the contribution of lakefront land (non-agricultural) values to the total tax-base is provided in the following table.

As is the case in Keuka Lake, the lakefront property land values contribute a substantial portion of the taxes to the town. The correlation between the value of the land and water quality as compared to other lakes with deteriorating water quality conditions is not known at this time. But as is shown by this table, people are willing to pay a lot of money for the privilege of living on this lake (see Appendix F).

Natural and reforested areas also comprise a large portion of the southern half of the watershed. These are, for the most part, located on very steep slopes, often with highly erodible soils. Steepness and difficult access have precluded most development on the southern slopes. However, development or timber harvesting in such areas would increase sedimentation rates into Skaneateles Lake if management practices were not implemented. Bear Swamp State Forest, managed by the DEC Region 7, Division of Lands and Forests includes approximately 3,200 acres. The DEC practices clearcutting on red pine stands of up to 40 acres that have reached their growth potential. This will continue to occur over the next 20 years on approximately 700 acres of stands, about 60-70 acres of which have already been cut. Stumps, tops, and duff are left to form protection for a natural forest regeneration, with resprouting of existing seedlings occurring within one season, and grass cover almost immediately. Water bars and other water diversions are used on temporary logging roads. After the cut, road ruts are bulldozed smooth, and grass regenerates within one season. No mud has been observed in Bear Swamp Creek by the Senior Forester after a clear cut (Russell, et. al 1995).

Private logging in the southern end has been observed by the DEC. The typical amount is 2-4 clear-cuts per year, on an average 10-20 acres each. Some erosion controls are used, such as water bars, but not as many as the DEC would typically use. Differences in private versus state practices are mainly in time of year: DEC only cuts in dry periods (summer and winter); private loggers have been active in Spring and fall. Most private forests are on steeper lands than the average lands of Bear Swamp State Forest.

A total of 18,819 acres of land was in agricultural use in 1996 with approximately 13,300 acres in crop production. Dairy farming continues to be the most common agricultural enterprise on the watershed. There are approximately 2,500 animal units in the watershed.

Crop farming is the second most common agricultural enterprise on the watershed. The main crops grown were those used for livestock feed. The major crop grown in hay at approximately 5,500 acres, with corn coming in second at approximately 4,000. In addition, wheat, soybeans and oats are common in the watershed. Conservation practices to conserve soil such as rotation, stripcropping, and contour farming are common.

The primary roads in the watershed are NY State Routes 41 (on the east side of the lake, and NY State Route 41A (on the west side of the lake).

Eleven roads are county roads. Onondaga County has jurisdiction over Benson, Corn Hill, Eibert, Shamrock, Nunnery, Wordworth, Rickard, Richard's, and Stanton Roads, Pork Street, and New Seneca Turnpike. Cayuga County roads include Old Salt, Glenhaven, New Hope, and Scott Gulf Roads. Cortland County Roads include Lower East Lake Road and Glenhaven Road. Cortland County maintains Rt. 41 in Scott. There are numerous local municipal roads, and numerous numbered private fire lanes, mostly leading to cottages on the lake.

Four-day vehicle counts taken by NYSDOT beginning July 31, 1989 showed an average peak hour traffic from 5-6 P.M. of 243 (axel-factored) on Route 41 (east side of the lake). On Route 41A (west side) on the same dates, an average weekday peak hour traffic of 324 vehicles occurred from 4 to 5 P.M.

NYS Route 20 borders the watershed on the north end of the lake in the Village of Skaneateles. The Comprehensive Plan of the Town of Skaneateles notes that Village streets are inadequate to handle the volume of traffic they must carry, but that there are few opportunities for rerouting some of the through truck traffic. It has been speculated that some trucks use this route to avoid NYS Thruway tolls. There are no current County or State plans to construct local bypass routes.

Skaneateles Lake has a number of recreational opportunities. In addition to private lakeshore property access to the lake, the following boat launch sites provide mooring and access to the lake for a fee: the Skaneateles Marina in Mandana, a small private launch at the Glen Haven Hotel in Cortland County, Sevey's Boatyard in Cayuga County at the Southern end of the Lake, and the Skaneateles Sailing Club. A New York State DEC boat launching facility for small boats in Skaneateles, and a Skaneateles Town public boat launch ramp in Mandana provide the only public access sites for boats on the lake.

The entire Bear Swamp State Forest and a portion of Hewitt State Forest are located in the watershed. The DEC maintains cross-country ski trails in Bear Swamp State Forest that are well-utilized. In addition, two private preserves offer hiking trails: the 150-acre "High Hickory Preserve," located on Tenmile Point and owned by "Save the County," and 135 acres on Vincent Hill Road in the Town of Scott owned by the Finger Lakes Land Trust.

The recreation service industry contributes a great deal to the regional economy of the watershed. For example, the DEC sponsored a study of expenditures on angler activities in New York State in 1988. The study results showed that in 1988 fishing activities contributed an estimated $860,000 to the local economy in Skaneateles Lake (NYSDEC, 1988).

Boating is also a popular sport on Skaneateles Lake. A study conducted by Tommy L. Brown and Associates in 1989 found that lakeshore residents placed a high value on their boating activities and ability to rent property for lake access. The mean daily boating value was estimated to be $89.45 per day. Furthermore, boating -related expenses such as repairs and maintenance, gas, food and lodging, and dues and fees to boating-related organizations were estimated to be worth between $847,000 - and $1,123,000 annually (Brown, 1990).

Skaneateles Lake has three primary character areas: the historic mercantile district at the north end of the lake in the Village of Skaneateles; an intermediate residential area moving southward on both sides of the lake; and a rugged, scenic area south of Borodino on the east side and south of Mandana on the west. The southern half of the watershed is characterized by small hamlets such as Borodino, Mandana, and New Hope. There are very few housing developments south of Borodino. Seasonal camps dot the cliffs, conforming to the landscape. The more affluent residential areas are located north of Hardscrabble Point. There is little commercial property in the watershed except for the Village of Skaneateles. The Skaneateles Village Historic Landmarks Preservation Commission is responsible for maintaining the historic character on the waterfront.

The Skaneateles Lake watershed abounds in scenic vistas of the narrow lake. The waters have an unusual and beautiful characteristic blue-green color. The most spectacular view is at the Sweeny Hill Crossing on Route. 41. Other views of the lake are the first one-third of the lake (north of Fivemile Point) and from Nunnery Road. Other vistas are on Glen Haven Road north to Threemile Point; from route 41A just north of Fallbrook Rd.; and from Route 41A north of Mandana all the way to Skaneateles.

Gorges too numerous to count exist in the watershed, primarily in the southern half. Carpenter's Falls, located 11 miles north of New Hope off Carver Road, has a particularly attractive overlook at the bridge.

The mercantile district of the Village of Skaneateles has interesting architecture and an attractive public library, with almost a sea-side resort character. The Village has many gracious homes and estates. A castle-like mansion is located at Fallbrook Point in Niles, and the Christian Brothers Academy, located north of Mile Point, is imposing, with Greek columns.